According to the psychoanalytic theory of personality development, the interactions between the mind’s three components influence human behavior. These three components are the Id, ego, and superego. Some dynamic interactions between these three components are believed to progress through five psychosexual developmental stages. How we approach the world and the way we behave are determined by the three components of the mind.

The ID

This component of the human mind is the source of all bodily needs and wants. The Id is also the source of libido and aggression. It is present in an individual at the time of birth and creates desires and emotional impulses. A newborn child’s mind is completely ridden with Id. 

It is free from morality and the concepts of good and evil. The Id seeks immediate gratification of a human being’s basic physical urges and needs. It forms much before the development of ego in its structured form.

The super-ego

The super-ego is formed by the cultural values that are taught by parents. It is, therefore, constructed on the model of the super-ego of an individual’s parents. Over a period of time, it becomes a means of transmitting the traditions and judgements of value. It forms a part of an individual’s personality structure that is not entirely unconscious but organized. It is like a form of conscience that punishes the wrong behavior of an individual.

The super-ego does this with feelings of guilt. This is true in cases like extra-marital affairs. In such situations, this component of the mind acts just like parents, pointing out the individual’s mistake.

The ego

The ego is relatively less primitive when compared to the Id. It seeks a more rational and pragmatic approach to fulfil Id’s demands. The very purpose of this is to bring some benefits rather than bad consequences. In a way, the ego acts as a mediator between the Id and reality. As a result, an individual is able to delay the gratification of immediate needs. This helps him or her to function effectively in the real world.

Though all the functions of the ego are not conscious, it has a conscious awareness residing in it. The greatest benefit of ego is that it helps humans in organizing their thoughts so that they make sense.

According to Freud, all these three components of the mind are in constant conflict. An adult personality is a manifestation of the results of these conflicts that go on throughout childhood. A conflict in the mind can be explained through an example. 

In this example, the mind says, “I want to do that now”. The super-ego is the individual counters it by saying, “It’s not right to do that”. In response, the ego says, “Maybe we can arrive at a compromise”.

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A positive mood leads to an increase in gambling

It is important to understand how the reward system of one’s brain works. Once this is done, it becomes easier to examine the psychology of gambling. A very obvious aspect of this activity is that the outcome cannot be predicted. There’s always an excitement or thrill associated with activities with unpredictable outcomes. When an element of reward is added to such an activity, the thrill nearly doubles.

Over the years, many studies have been done on the effects of mood on gambling. Generally, they indicate that an individual tends to gamble more when his or her mood is positive. When in a good mood, he or she may also drink more alcohol while gambling. This is true with both gambling in casinos as well as indulging in the activity online.  

The gambler’s fallacy

This phenomenon is believed to have originated in the summer of 1913 at Casino de Monte-Carlo. It happened during the game of roulette, when the ball kept falling in black 26 times in a row. Those betting against black lost enormous amounts of francs as a result. All of them incorrectly assumed that the ball would fall in red after falling in black many times. 

The gambler’s fallacy is the assumption that an event is unlikely to occur again if it occurred frequently than expected. Many of the psychologists consider it as one of the cognitive biases.

An increased hope of winning

There was a study done on individuals betting on racetrack horses. Some of them were asked to estimate the chances of their favored horse winning. They were asked to do this before and after placing their bet on the horse. It was observed that they had greater expectations of their horse winning after placing the bet.

The bandwagon effect

This tendency can be understood by taking voting as an example. Some individuals vote for those parties or candidates who have higher chances of winning. This is done to ensure that they are on the side of the winner when the result is announced. So, the bandwagon effect comes from the phrase ‘jump on the bandwagon’. It indicates that people usually do what the majority is doing.

One can find this tendency in the world of gambling as well. A beginner wanting to increase the chances of winning will always bet on what most gamblers are betting on.

Superstitions in gambling

In a way, gambling is just a game of chance. Despite this fact, many of the gamblers think they can create a system or method to ensure their win. Some of them make predictions using random numbers they believe would bring them luck. A few others perform some sort of ritual to keep winning. Whatever the behavioral patterns, it is necessary to prevent an addiction to gambling. A beginner is more likely to become an addict and lose money playing the wrong games. 

Fortunately, there are some websites that provide detailed information about the most trusted online casinos. This site also gives gambling enthusiasts the best advice on ‘responsible gambling’ and some slots to try for free. For more details visit www.casinosjungle.com

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However, it also states that moral reasoning alone is not sufficient for ethical behaviour in an individual. Both Piaget and Kohlberg claimed that morality develops over time in constructive stages:

Obedience and punishment orientation

In this stage, individuals focus on their actions and the direct consequences of those actions on them. An action is perceived as morally wrong owing to the punishment that the perpetrator is subject to. An individual remembers how he or she was punished the last time a morally wrong deed was done. 

The individual in question then refrains from repeating it again. One of the examples of this is a situation where a child is dared by his or her classmate to skip school. The child decides not to skip school fearing that he or she will be punished for doing so.

Self-interest orientation

Stage two is driven by self-interest. Right behavior is defined by whatever is convenient to the individual. It is also defined by whatever he or she thinks and believes to be in his or her best interest. Reasoning in this stage doesn’t take into consideration the needs of others. 

The Latin term ‘quid pro quo’ aptly describes this. It means giving or doing something for getting something in return. All the actions at this stage are performed to serve the individual’s own interests or needs.

Interpersonal accord and conformity

This stage of moral development is concerned with adolescents and adults. In this stage, an individual tries to conform to social standards. He or she learns that being regarded as good is beneficial for him or her. He or she becomes receptive to approval or disapproval from society. 

Moral reasoning now takes into account the consequences that an action would have on his or her social relationships. The individual understands that people tend to like him or her when he or she is not naughty. This happens despite not fully understanding the rules for his or her social role.

Authority and social-order maintaining orientation

Moral reasoning at this stage is free from the need for individual approval. He or she understands the importance of obeying laws and social conventions to maintain a functioning society. There is an inner obligation to uphold laws and rules. 

This comes usually from an understanding that if one individual violates a law, everyone will do the same. At this stage, morality is determined by an outside force.

Social contract orientation

Most of the democratic governments are based on the moral reasoning of the fifth stage. Laws are not considered as rigid official orders, but are regarded as social contracts. It is based on the fact that the world is full of different values, opinions, and rights. 

The greater good for the greatest number of people is considered important. An opinion that certain laws must be changed to promote general welfare is formed.

Universal ethical principles

In this stage, moral reasoning is done using ethical principles that are universal in nature. An individual acts because he or she feels it is right. This is not done to avoid punishment. It is not taken into consideration whether the action is legal, expected, or has been agreed upon earlier. 

Kohlberg found it difficult to identify those who operated at this level of moral reasoning consistently. It is, therefore, difficult to recognize or define stage six as one of the stages in moral development.

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It describes the eight stages of psychosocial development, which an individual goes through in life. These eight stages are as follows:

Hope (Trust vs Mistrust)

This is the first stage in the life of humans or the infancy stage. During this stage, the infant either develops trust or mistrust towards parents or the caregiver. This is based entirely on how the child is treated. If the parents or the caregiver fulfils the child’s basic needs, he or she trusts the world. 

The infant also learns the virtue of hope. If the parents or the caregiver is unable to fulfil the child’s basic needs, the infant develops a sense of mistrust. This leads to feelings of suspicion, withdrawal, and lack of confidence in the child.

Will (Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt)

When a child is a toddler, he or she begins to explore his or her surroundings. The child still depends on the parents or the caregiver for security. However, what the child is looking for at this stage is autonomy. The toddler develops his or her interests for the first time. It can be playing with certain things or enjoying some music and dance. The parents or the caregiver needs to be careful while dealing with the child at this stage. 

If they patiently encourage their child to explore more, he or she can deal with problems independently. There are parents or caregivers who are highly restrictive or ridicule the child’s early attempts to become independent. It leads to feelings of shame and doubts in the child about handling problems.

Purpose (Initiative vs Guilt)

Children aged 5 to 8 are constantly trying to learn basic skills and understand the principles of physics. This helps them master the world around them. A child at this stage performs a task for fulfilling a purpose. Some of the qualities that a child can develop at this stage are planning, taking initiative, and leadership. 

The role of parents, caregivers, and teachers involves supporting the children’s efforts. At the same time, they must also help children to be realistic and make appropriate choices. If the adults discourage the efforts made by children, the kids develop guilt about their pursuits.

Competence (Industry vs Inferiority)

Middle childhood is when a child must deal with the learning of new skills. Children aged 9 to 12 are said to be in their middle childhood. This is the stage when children begin to learn reading, writing, recognizing individual differences, and telling time. At this stage, there is also a risk of the child feeling incompetent or inferior upon failing to learn. Children in their middle childhood are also eager to learn moral values. 

They might, at times, assert their independence by being rebellious and disobedient. They may also talk back. Parents and caregivers must allow children to discover their own talents and praise them for their accomplishments. Ridicule and punishments for their efforts will develop feelings of inferiority or incompetence in them.

Fidelity (Identity vs Role Confusion)

At this stage of life, the adolescent increasingly becomes concerned with how he or she appears to others. This stage covers the ages from 12 to 19. It involves a transition from childhood to adulthood and the child develops a sexual identity. Adolescents usually find themselves at a crossroads. The questions they have are – who they are and what they can be. 

As they embark on a path of self-discovery, they may have some disagreements with their parents or caregivers. These disagreements are usually over matters like beliefs, religion, and political orientation. This is also the time when career choices are made. Parents or caregivers can be a guide for them in this regard, but they must avoid being too insistent.

Love (Intimacy vs Isolation)

Early adulthood brings a need in young adults to ‘fit in’, as they feel afraid of rejections. There may be times when an intimate relationship is under threat from outsiders. As a result, young adults may seek to destroy or isolate things that threaten their life or ideals. Such things usually happen to those who are around the age of 30.

Once they have surpassed this age and established their identity, they can make some long-term commitments. They develop the capability of forming great relationships by the way of marriage or close friendships. If such relationships require some compromises, they are willing to make sacrifices. Those who are unable to form intimate relationships often develop a sense of isolation. This may arouse feelings of anger and frustration in them.

Care (Generativity vs Stagnation)

This is a stage when adults feel the responsibility of offering guidance to the next generation. It is referred to as ‘Generativity’. This often applies in family, society, relationships, and work. Some of the common expressions of generativity are the choice of work and disciplines that are socially valued. 

Adults aged 40 to 59 who contribute towards the betterment of society or raising a family feel a sense of productivity and accomplishment. Those who are unable or unwilling to make such contributions feel dissatisfied and stagnated.

Wisdom (Ego Integrity vs Despair)

When the adults become senior citizens, it is time for them to enjoy their retirement and explore life. They begin contemplating on the things they have achieved. If they feel that they have not been able to achieve their life goals, they develop despair and dissatisfaction. They go through depression and hopelessness.

If they believe that their life has been productive and happy, there is ego integrity and contentment in them. During this stage, they may also take a renewed interest in several things. They try to develop a sense of autonomy so that they become self-reliant to the greatest extent possible.

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The origin of modern game theory can be traced back to the early 18th century. Charles Waldegrave provided a strategic solution to the two-player version of a French card game known as ‘le Her’. The game theory became a unique concept when On the Theory of Games of Strategy was published in 1928. 

This paper was authored by John von Neumann, a Hungarian-American mathematician, engineer, computer scientist, polymath, and physicist. Later, he along with economist Oskar Morgenstern authored a book called Theory of Games and Economic Behavior in 1944. 

In the mid-twentieth century, John Nash came up with Nash equilibrium. This defined a solution for a non-cooperative game with two or more players. In a way, Nash provided a significant extension of the works of John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern.

What is the Game Theory?

In simple terms, game theory provides a theoretical basis to conceive social situations among the players. The game theory can be considered as a science of strategy. It assumes that players take a rational approach and tend to try hard for maximization of their payoffs. 

The outcome of each player is affected by the choices and actions of all the players involved. One of the keys to this theory is that one participant’s payoff depends on the strategy implemented by the other.

John F. Nash and the Nash equilibrium

John Forbes Nash Jr. was an American mathematician known for the valuable contribution he made to the game theory. He had made this contribution with the Nash equilibrium, which he developed in the 1950s. He is the only individual to have received both the Abel Prize and Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. 

The Nash equilibrium can also be called the ‘no regrets’ concept. It refers to an outcome, which is reached in a game. No player can increase their payoff by changing their own strategy. So, once a decision is made by a player in the game, he or she won’t have any regrets.

Application of the Nash equilibrium

The Nash equilibrium among the important concepts detailed in the game theory. It makes an effort to mathematically and logically determine the actions that players should take. These actions would result in an outcome which is in their favor. It is the applicability of this concept, which makes it so important in the real world. Whether it is a game of poker or a real estate deal, a desired outcome can be achieved.

Application of the Nash equilibrium in the real world can be understood from an example. In this example, a game is on between Edward and Samuel. Both can choose strategy ‘X’ to get one million dollars or strategy ‘Y’ to lose the same amount. So, both the players choose the strategy ‘X’ and get a payoff of one million dollars. Now, if Samuel’s strategy is revealed to Edward and vice versa, none of them would change their original strategy. 

This is due to the fact that a player’s strategy would mean little to the other. It, therefore, will not change the behaviour of either player. So, the outcome of strategy ‘X’ is a Nash equilibrium. 

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It takes into account several factors that account for evolution in different species, including humans. The most prominent factors are discussed below:

‘Evolution as Such’

All species are related and undergo gradual changes over time. Darwin’s theory of evolution states that the genetic variation in the population of species affect an organism’s physical characteristics. There are several causes of genetic variation, such as genetic recombination and mutation. 

Genetic drift and sexual reproduction play an important role in mutation and this makes it a major source of genetic variation. Some of the features acquired in this process may be advantageous for an organism. This passes on to their offspring, making them evolve further.

Natural Selection

Individual organisms are different from others in their species in some ways. This variation makes some of them better suited to the environment. Individuals with traits that put them at an advantage over others have greater chances of survival and reproduction. They pass on these traits on to their offspring and they become common in the later populations over time. 

This process of living beings adapting and changing is called natural selection. It can lead to speciation. This is where one form of species give rise to distinctly different ones. Thus, diversity of life on this planet can be explained better using this process.

Common Descent

This concept is used in a sub-field of biology called evolutionary biology. It applies when one species becomes the ancestor later in time of two or more species. In modern biology, the Last Universal Common Ancestor is considered a unique ancestor of all life forms on earth. The last universal ancestor of all the living beings of today lived nearly 3.9 billion years ago. 

Darwin first proposed the concept of universal common descent in the concluding part of On the Origin of Species. Common descent is the result of speciation. In this evolutionary process, multiple species descend from a single ancestral population.

Population Speciation

This term was coined by Orator F. Cook in the early 20th century. This was done for cladogenesis, which is an evolutionary process of the parent species splitting into two distinct species. Speciation can be classified into four geographic modes, namely allopatric, parapatric, peripatric, and sympatric. This is based on the extent of isolation of the speciating populations. 

Agriculture, laboratory experiments and animal husbandry are the other ways of inducing speciation. The extent to which genetic drift contributes to speciation is still a matter of speculation.

Gradualism

The term ‘Gradualism’ is derived from the Latin word ‘gradus’, which means ‘step’. It is a theory, which assumes that variation takes place gradually in nature and happens over time. This was a contrast to the theory of ‘punctuated equilibrium’ by the paleontologists Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge. Punctuated equilibrium states that large change happens through sudden gene mutations and not gradually. 

The best example of gradualism is that of a butterfly. A species of butterfly with the colours yellow and black are visible to predators. A butterfly is born with orange and yellow colours, which predators cannot spot easily. In this case, the butterflies with yellow and black colours die out over a long period of time.

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