According to the psychoanalytic theory of personality development, the interactions between the mind’s three components influence human behavior. These three components are the Id, ego, and superego. Some dynamic interactions between these three components are believed to progress through five psychosexual developmental stages. How we approach the world and the way we behave are determined by the three components of the mind.

The ID

This component of the human mind is the source of all bodily needs and wants. The Id is also the source of libido and aggression. It is present in an individual at the time of birth and creates desires and emotional impulses. A newborn child’s mind is completely ridden with Id. 

It is free from morality and the concepts of good and evil. The Id seeks immediate gratification of a human being’s basic physical urges and needs. It forms much before the development of ego in its structured form.

The super-ego

The super-ego is formed by the cultural values that are taught by parents. It is, therefore, constructed on the model of the super-ego of an individual’s parents. Over a period of time, it becomes a means of transmitting the traditions and judgements of value. It forms a part of an individual’s personality structure that is not entirely unconscious but organized. It is like a form of conscience that punishes the wrong behavior of an individual.

The super-ego does this with feelings of guilt. This is true in cases like extra-marital affairs. In such situations, this component of the mind acts just like parents, pointing out the individual’s mistake.

The ego

The ego is relatively less primitive when compared to the Id. It seeks a more rational and pragmatic approach to fulfil Id’s demands. The very purpose of this is to bring some benefits rather than bad consequences. In a way, the ego acts as a mediator between the Id and reality. As a result, an individual is able to delay the gratification of immediate needs. This helps him or her to function effectively in the real world.

Though all the functions of the ego are not conscious, it has a conscious awareness residing in it. The greatest benefit of ego is that it helps humans in organizing their thoughts so that they make sense.

According to Freud, all these three components of the mind are in constant conflict. An adult personality is a manifestation of the results of these conflicts that go on throughout childhood. A conflict in the mind can be explained through an example. 

In this example, the mind says, “I want to do that now”. The super-ego is the individual counters it by saying, “It’s not right to do that”. In response, the ego says, “Maybe we can arrive at a compromise”.

The post The Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality Development appeared first on darwinis(not)dead.

However, it also states that moral reasoning alone is not sufficient for ethical behaviour in an individual. Both Piaget and Kohlberg claimed that morality develops over time in constructive stages:

Obedience and punishment orientation

In this stage, individuals focus on their actions and the direct consequences of those actions on them. An action is perceived as morally wrong owing to the punishment that the perpetrator is subject to. An individual remembers how he or she was punished the last time a morally wrong deed was done. 

The individual in question then refrains from repeating it again. One of the examples of this is a situation where a child is dared by his or her classmate to skip school. The child decides not to skip school fearing that he or she will be punished for doing so.

Self-interest orientation

Stage two is driven by self-interest. Right behavior is defined by whatever is convenient to the individual. It is also defined by whatever he or she thinks and believes to be in his or her best interest. Reasoning in this stage doesn’t take into consideration the needs of others. 

The Latin term ‘quid pro quo’ aptly describes this. It means giving or doing something for getting something in return. All the actions at this stage are performed to serve the individual’s own interests or needs.

Interpersonal accord and conformity

This stage of moral development is concerned with adolescents and adults. In this stage, an individual tries to conform to social standards. He or she learns that being regarded as good is beneficial for him or her. He or she becomes receptive to approval or disapproval from society. 

Moral reasoning now takes into account the consequences that an action would have on his or her social relationships. The individual understands that people tend to like him or her when he or she is not naughty. This happens despite not fully understanding the rules for his or her social role.

Authority and social-order maintaining orientation

Moral reasoning at this stage is free from the need for individual approval. He or she understands the importance of obeying laws and social conventions to maintain a functioning society. There is an inner obligation to uphold laws and rules. 

This comes usually from an understanding that if one individual violates a law, everyone will do the same. At this stage, morality is determined by an outside force.

Social contract orientation

Most of the democratic governments are based on the moral reasoning of the fifth stage. Laws are not considered as rigid official orders, but are regarded as social contracts. It is based on the fact that the world is full of different values, opinions, and rights. 

The greater good for the greatest number of people is considered important. An opinion that certain laws must be changed to promote general welfare is formed.

Universal ethical principles

In this stage, moral reasoning is done using ethical principles that are universal in nature. An individual acts because he or she feels it is right. This is not done to avoid punishment. It is not taken into consideration whether the action is legal, expected, or has been agreed upon earlier. 

Kohlberg found it difficult to identify those who operated at this level of moral reasoning consistently. It is, therefore, difficult to recognize or define stage six as one of the stages in moral development.

The post Stages of Moral Development by Lawrence Kohlberg appeared first on darwinis(not)dead.

If we include the scientists and inventors of all time, this list would be too long. So, we’ve listed only the twelve most influential scientists in this article. Now, without further ado, let’s see who they are:

1. Nicolaus Copernicus

Nicolaus Copernicus was born in Poland on the 19th of February 1473. He was a Catholic canon, mathematician, and astronomer from the Renaissance era. Copernicus developed a model that placed the sun at the centre of the universe instead of the earth. 

About eighteen centuries earlier, an ancient Greek astronomer known as Aristarchus of Samos had formulated a similar model. Nevertheless, it is highly possible that Copernicus had developed his own independent model.

2. Galileo

An Italian physicist, astronomer, and engineer, Galileo is also described as a polymath from Pisa at times. He was born as Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de’ Galilei in Italy on the 15th of February 1564. Besides inventing the thermoscope and a variety of military compasses, he also used the telescope for celestial observations. 

He was opposed by a few astronomers and the Catholic Church for contradicting the scriptures with his scientific views. Eventually, he was forced to recant and was placed under house arrest for the rest of his life.

3. Robert Boyle

He is renowned for his experimental gas law called Boyle’s law. It describes how the absolute pressure has an inversely proportional relationship with the volume of a gas. The only condition is that this must be within a closed system with a constant temperature. His book The Sceptical Chemist is highly regarded in chemistry.

He was born Anglo-Irish on the 25th of January 1627. Robert Boyle is regarded largely as the first modern chemist today. He was also an inventor, a natural philosopher, and physicist.

4. Sir Isaac Newton

Newton is recognized worldwide as one of the key figures in the scientific revolution. He is also considered one of the most influential scientists the world has ever seen. His laws of motion and universal gravitation dominated the world of science for quite a long time. Among his prominent inventions were The Newtonian, which was the first practical reflecting telescope. 

Born on Christmas day in 1642, Newton had devoted much of his time to biblical chronology and alchemy. In the early 18th century, he was knighted by Queen Anne. He was personally and politically associated with the Whig party.

5. Mary Anning

Born in England’s Dorset county on 21st of May 1799, Mary Anning is known for her Jurassic fossil finds. She was a fossil collector and dealer besides being a paleontologist. Her findings influenced the scientific thinking of those times about the prehistoric life on earth. Most of her finds were made in the marine beds and cliffs along the English Channel. 

Among her discoveries were the Ichthyosaur and Plesiosaur skeletons. In Britain of the 19th century, women were never allowed to fully participate in the scientific community. As a result, she didn’t often receive full credit for the contributions she made in the field of science.  

6. Michael Faraday

He discovered the underlying principles of electrolysis, electromagnetic induction, and diamagnetism. Born in Newington Butts, which was in those times Surrey’s suburban portion, Michael Faraday had little formal education. Despite this, he became one of history’s most influential scientists. 

Faraday created the basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field through his research. It was on the magnetic field surrounding a conductor, which carried a direct current. Among his prominent discoveries is benzene, which he discovered as a chemist. He also held a lifetime position at the Royal Institution as a Fullerian Professor of Chemistry.

7. Charles Darwin

In his book On the Origin of Species published in 1859, Darwin described his theory of evolution with acceptable evidence. Nearly two decades later, the theory was widely accepted among the educated public and the scientific community. He neglected his medical education. Instead, he chose to help in investigating marine invertebrates owing to his keen interest in nature. 

Charles Robert Darwin was born on the 12th of February 1809 in the English county of Shropshire. He conceived his theory of natural selection in 1838 after detailed investigations. His series of research were published in several books including The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.

8. Marie Curie

Maria Salomea Sklodowska was born in the Polish capital of Warsaw on the 7th of November 1934. She studied at Flying University in Warsaw, where she also began her practical scientific training. In 1895, she married Pierre Curie and came to be known as Marie Curie. Her husband was a French physicist who pioneered magnetism, crystallography, radioactivity, and piezoelectricity. 

Marie Curie pioneered the theory of radioactivity along with her husband and the physicist Henri Becquerel. For their work, they shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize and the first and the only woman to win the Nobel Prize (two times) She was also the only person to win this coveted prize in two scientific fields.

9. Alexander Graham Bell

A scientist, inventor, and engineer, Alexander Graham Bell was born on the 3rd of March 1847. He invented and patented the first practical telephone and co-founded AT&T in 1885. Most of his life’s works were influenced by the deafness of his mother and wife. 

He experimented with hearing devices as a part of his research on hearing and speech. Eventually, it got him the US patent on the 7th of March 1876 for the telephone. And later he made many other inventions, including some major ones in hydrofoils, optical telecommunications, and aeronautics. He also had a strong influence on the National Geographic Society, although he was not one of its founders.

10. Nikola Tesla

Tesla was born in present-day Croatia as an ethnic Serb on the 10th of July 1856. He was a Serbian-American inventor, futurist, mechanical engineer and electrical engineer. He never received a formal education. Without receiving a degree, he studied engineering and physics in the 1870s. 

Tesla gained practical experience by working in telephony and in the new electric power company in 1880s. He also worked for a brief period at the Edison Machine Works after emigrating to the United States. He had talked about the possibilities of wireless communication in 1893. Nikola Tesla is also renowned for his design of the alternating current (AC).

11. Albert Einstein

Einstein is renowned globally as one of the greatest physicists of all time after Isaac Newton. He developed the theory of relativity, which became one of the pillars of modern physics. His formula of mass-energy equivalence became the most famous equation in the world. The intellectual achievements of Einstein resulted in his last name becoming synonymous with genius.

He was born on the 14th of March 1879 in Ulm, which was a part of the German Empire. Before he left the German Empire, he had received his primary and secondary school education. He received a PhD from the University of Zurich in 1905. In 1940, he became an American citizen. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for his works in theoretical physics.

12. Stephen Hawking

Stephen Hawking was the first to put forth a theory of cosmology. This was explained by combining quantum mechanics and the general theory of relativity. Some of his significant scientific works include a theoretical prediction of black holes emitting radiation. This is often referred to as ‘Hawking radiation’. He discussed cosmology and his theories in general in his book A Brief History of Time. The book was on The Sunday Times best-seller list for 237 weeks.

Born on the 8th of January 1942 in Oxford, Hawking was known as ‘Einstein’ at school. He received a first-class BA (Hons.) degree from the University of Oxford in physics. He got his PhD from the University of Cambridge in 1966, despite struggling with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

We’re sure you might have understood how important the discoveries of these scientists were for all the recent technological advancements. Who according to you is the best among them? Do let us know in your comments.

The post 12 Most Important Scientists in History appeared first on darwinis(not)dead.

It describes the eight stages of psychosocial development, which an individual goes through in life. These eight stages are as follows:

Hope (Trust vs Mistrust)

This is the first stage in the life of humans or the infancy stage. During this stage, the infant either develops trust or mistrust towards parents or the caregiver. This is based entirely on how the child is treated. If the parents or the caregiver fulfils the child’s basic needs, he or she trusts the world. 

The infant also learns the virtue of hope. If the parents or the caregiver is unable to fulfil the child’s basic needs, the infant develops a sense of mistrust. This leads to feelings of suspicion, withdrawal, and lack of confidence in the child.

Will (Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt)

When a child is a toddler, he or she begins to explore his or her surroundings. The child still depends on the parents or the caregiver for security. However, what the child is looking for at this stage is autonomy. The toddler develops his or her interests for the first time. It can be playing with certain things or enjoying some music and dance. The parents or the caregiver needs to be careful while dealing with the child at this stage. 

If they patiently encourage their child to explore more, he or she can deal with problems independently. There are parents or caregivers who are highly restrictive or ridicule the child’s early attempts to become independent. It leads to feelings of shame and doubts in the child about handling problems.

Purpose (Initiative vs Guilt)

Children aged 5 to 8 are constantly trying to learn basic skills and understand the principles of physics. This helps them master the world around them. A child at this stage performs a task for fulfilling a purpose. Some of the qualities that a child can develop at this stage are planning, taking initiative, and leadership. 

The role of parents, caregivers, and teachers involves supporting the children’s efforts. At the same time, they must also help children to be realistic and make appropriate choices. If the adults discourage the efforts made by children, the kids develop guilt about their pursuits.

Competence (Industry vs Inferiority)

Middle childhood is when a child must deal with the learning of new skills. Children aged 9 to 12 are said to be in their middle childhood. This is the stage when children begin to learn reading, writing, recognizing individual differences, and telling time. At this stage, there is also a risk of the child feeling incompetent or inferior upon failing to learn. Children in their middle childhood are also eager to learn moral values. 

They might, at times, assert their independence by being rebellious and disobedient. They may also talk back. Parents and caregivers must allow children to discover their own talents and praise them for their accomplishments. Ridicule and punishments for their efforts will develop feelings of inferiority or incompetence in them.

Fidelity (Identity vs Role Confusion)

At this stage of life, the adolescent increasingly becomes concerned with how he or she appears to others. This stage covers the ages from 12 to 19. It involves a transition from childhood to adulthood and the child develops a sexual identity. Adolescents usually find themselves at a crossroads. The questions they have are – who they are and what they can be. 

As they embark on a path of self-discovery, they may have some disagreements with their parents or caregivers. These disagreements are usually over matters like beliefs, religion, and political orientation. This is also the time when career choices are made. Parents or caregivers can be a guide for them in this regard, but they must avoid being too insistent.

Love (Intimacy vs Isolation)

Early adulthood brings a need in young adults to ‘fit in’, as they feel afraid of rejections. There may be times when an intimate relationship is under threat from outsiders. As a result, young adults may seek to destroy or isolate things that threaten their life or ideals. Such things usually happen to those who are around the age of 30.

Once they have surpassed this age and established their identity, they can make some long-term commitments. They develop the capability of forming great relationships by the way of marriage or close friendships. If such relationships require some compromises, they are willing to make sacrifices. Those who are unable to form intimate relationships often develop a sense of isolation. This may arouse feelings of anger and frustration in them.

Care (Generativity vs Stagnation)

This is a stage when adults feel the responsibility of offering guidance to the next generation. It is referred to as ‘Generativity’. This often applies in family, society, relationships, and work. Some of the common expressions of generativity are the choice of work and disciplines that are socially valued. 

Adults aged 40 to 59 who contribute towards the betterment of society or raising a family feel a sense of productivity and accomplishment. Those who are unable or unwilling to make such contributions feel dissatisfied and stagnated.

Wisdom (Ego Integrity vs Despair)

When the adults become senior citizens, it is time for them to enjoy their retirement and explore life. They begin contemplating on the things they have achieved. If they feel that they have not been able to achieve their life goals, they develop despair and dissatisfaction. They go through depression and hopelessness.

If they believe that their life has been productive and happy, there is ego integrity and contentment in them. During this stage, they may also take a renewed interest in several things. They try to develop a sense of autonomy so that they become self-reliant to the greatest extent possible.

The post Theory of Psychosocial Development by Erik Erikson appeared first on darwinis(not)dead.